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Overnight Camp & The Brain: The Hidden Benefits of a Summer Spent in Cabins

By Rachel Kimball

Picture of a Sunfish Sailboat on Sunset Lake at Camp Tel Noar, a co-ed overnight camp in Hampstead, NH.

Introduction:

Some parents choose to send their kids off to sleep-away camp year after year. As days are filled with sailing, waterskiing, dancing, and bunk time, it makes us wonder: other than the fun that comes out of the several weeks spent away from home, how does it benefit these kids? This question can be answered in many ways ways, but one key component in how overnight camp benefits campers has to do with what the MAPP Scholars focus on most: the brain! 

Staying Active & The Brain:

I spent eight summers at a camp in NH, and it is no joke that my watch tracked 20,000+ steps a day. From running to activities, to swimming laps in the pool, to dancing and kickball, kids are more active at camps than anywhere else. As mentioned in our Instagram posts, there is a very clear correlation between physical health and brain health. 

Physical activity is any voluntary movement that requires energy. Aerobic exercise raises the rate of respiration and the heart rate. This boosts the immune system, reduces the risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and falls in older people. Most relevant to MAPP, it boosts cognitive function. Studies show that regular consistent exercise keeps the mind sharp and helps protect cognitive functions such as memory, thinking, and reasoning. Physical activity, especially strength-training, improves balance, increases neural functioning, and improves reaction time. 

Many people often say that being in nature “clears our minds.” This is true, and there are also neurological reasons behind this. Recently, researchers studied more than 2,500 kids (ages 5-7). The researchers found that the children who spent more time outdoors had their memory improved by an average of 28 percent! They also found that children who spent time in nature were better at reading other people’s emotions and being socially aware due to increased  an increase in brain activity.

Exercise also boosts happy hormone and neurotransmitter levels! It boosts dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin levels, and and serotonin levels, as well as GABA which is responsible for chemical messaging in the brain. The physical activity at camps also causes release of proteins that promote the growth of new neurons. In addition, the increase in blood flow during exercise causes the brain to receive more oxygen-rich blood, which increases the level of nutrients in the brain. 

Exercise also increases molecular targets such as the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This increases synaptogenesis (synapse forming) making  which makes it easier to absorb information and form long-term memories. Hence, the physical activity during summer camp summer  that comes with a summer at camp significantly benefits the brain. 

Decreased Screen Time:

In addition to increasing physical activity, most overnight camps are technology-free and thus decrease campers’ screen time. There’s nothing like seeing your phone on visiting day and finding hundreds of unread texts and notifications. In fact, reduced screen time changes the brain over time. 

Early data from a landmark National Institutes of Health (NIH) study that began in 2018 indicates that children who spent more than two hours a day on screen-time activities scored lower on language and thinking tests. Additionally, some , and some children with more than seven hours a day of screen time experienced thinning of the brain’s cortex, which is related  the area of the brain related to critical thinking and reasoning. Decreasing this screen time, however, prevents these adverse effects. 

Decreased screen time is also correlated with better quality sleep. Screen time close to bedtime prevents bedtime bed time, prevents the increase in melatonin levels necessary to fall asleep. When sleep is decreased to less than seven hours, the brain has less time to clear beta-amyloid away, raising the risk of developing Alzheimer’s Disease. RBy reducing decreasing screen time can increase hours spent sleeping each night, which reduces this additional risk factor of developing Alzheimer’s Disease.   

Camp & The Middle Prefrontal Cortex:

The middle prefrontal cortex is the front-most part of the frontal lobe and is found right behind the forehead. It serves  various a variety of functions, and enables us to regulate our emotions, feel empathy, communicate, adapt to new situations, make good decisions, and overcome fear. It plays a prominent large role in maintaining and building relationships, and having good emotional and mental health.

When camps influence kids’ minds and make them more confident, build relationships with others, and become more independent, the campers’ mindsets/attitudes aren’t the only things that are changing; their they’re brain structure is actually changing as well, as the middle prefrontal cortex is forming new synapses. 

Different experiences change the brain’s wiring writing of the brain through neuroplasticity when the brain creates new synapses (connections between neurons.) When kids have camp experiences that require them to be independent, form new relationships, and be flexible, these new synapses strengthen. Change in structure causes change in function, so the more these skills and habits are repeated, the more the synapses are strengthened, and the more these skills develop. 

Conclusion:

Anyone who has spent a summer or two at sleepaway camp will likely tell you how it changed them. And while the summer did change them as a person, it also changed their brain structure and function. From increased physical activity to decreased screen time, and anatomical changes in the brain, such as in the prefrontal cortex, camp can have a significant great impact on our cognitive health. 

Sources:

Cross, Jennifer, Dr. “What Does Too Much Screen Time Do to Children’s Brains?”

     New York Presbyterian, healthmatters.nyp.org/

     what-does-too-much-screen-time-do-to-childrens-brains/. Accessed 24 Apr.

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Montemarano, Jada. “Youth anxiety and depression increased during pandemic;

     summer camp could help.” Spectrum News 1, Charter Communications, July

     2021, spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/health/2021/07/28/

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     Accessed 24 Apr. 2022.

“Summer Camp Boosts Brain Development.” nbc15.com, Gray Television, Inc., 27

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     Sleepaway Camp.” American Camp Association, American Camp Association,

     Inc., Jan. 2014, www.acacamps.org/resource-library/camping-magazine/

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“Give the Gift of the Outdoors: How Summer Camp Exercises Your Brain.” Camp

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“A Lack of Sleep in Middle Age Can Increase the Risk of Dementia.”

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     anses-itself. Accessed 24 Apr. 2022.

Ruder, Debra Bradley. “Screen Time and the Brain.” Harvard Medical School, The

     President and Fellows of Harvard College, 19 June 2019, hms.harvard.edu/

     news/screen-time-brain. Accessed 24 Apr. 2022.

https://spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/health/2021/07/28/youth-anxiety-and-depression-increased-during-pandemic–summer-camp-could-help#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20that%2C%20they,the%20mental%20health%20of%20kids.
https://www.nbc15.com/content/misc/Summer-Camp-Boosts-Brain-Development-503576601.html
https://www.acacamps.org/resource-library/camping-magazine/bunks-are-good-brains-neuroscience-sleepaway-camp
https://www.healthline.com/health-news/a-lack-of-sleep-in-middle-age-can-increase-the-risk-of-dementia#How-the-brain-cleanses-itself
https://hms.harvard.edu/news/screen-time-brain
https://www.nbc15.com/content/misc/Summer-Camp-Boosts-Brain-Development-503576601.html#:~:text=Researchers%20studied%20more%20than%2025,as%20much%20as%2028%20percent.

Careers in Neurology/Psychology

By Rachel Kimball

Introduction:

Neurology and Psychiatry are fascinating fields. Many of us have heard the term “neurologist:” a doctor who focuses on the nervous system’s anatomy, function, and disorders. Likewise, psychiatry is a well-known career. However, there are hundreds of career paths within neurology and psychiatry. 

In this blog post, we’ll be discussing many different types of careers within the broader field. This will include an overview of what a day-in-the-life may look like and the path required to get there.

Neurologists: 

Neurology is a branch of medicine that deals with nervous system disorders including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. Some of the disorders and diseases they may study and treat include spinal cord disorders, sleep disorders, movement disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, speech and language disorders, and seizure disorders. The key difference between a neurologist and a neurosurgeon is that while both careers require an M.D., a neurologist does not perform surgery. 

To become a neurologist, one must receive a 4-year undergraduate degree, obtain their M.D. or D.O., a one-year internship in either internal medicine or medicine/surgery, and complete a 3+ year residency training in an accredited neurology program.  After residency, many neurologists choose to pursue further specialization through an additional fellowship program . 

Psychiatrists

Psychiatry is the specialty of medicine that focuses on preventing, diagnosing, and treating behavioral, emotional, and mental disorders. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor (M.D. or D.O.) that completed medical school, a four-year residency training in psychiatry, and board exams. Psychiatrists may choose to further specialize their training in child and adolescent psychiatry, g eriatric psychiatry, forensic/legal psychiatry, addiction psychiatry, pain medicine, psychosomatic (mind and body) medicine, or sleep medicine. 

Because psychiatrists are medical doctors, they can diagnose and treat various disorders.  In addition, they can order medical tests and prescribe medications due to their medical degree. Treatment often includes psychotherapy (“talk therapy”) and prescription medications such as antidepressants, sedatives, hypnotics, mood stabilizers, stimulants, and antipsychotic medications.  

Neurosurgeon: 

Neurosurgeons must also obtain a medical degree and residency program to practice. Neurosurgeons differ from neurologists in the sense that they perform surgery. They diagnose and treat a variety of disorders, including congenital anomalies, trauma, tumors, vascular conditions , brain/spinal infections, and degenerative diseases. Neurosurgeons may perform minor procedures or more complex extensive ones, and they also typically spend time in a clinical setting seeing patients before or after their procedures.  

Clinical Psychologist: 

Clinical Psychologists do not need to obtain an M.D. or D.O. The path requires completion of an undergraduate degree, and a doctoral degree that sometimes requires a Master’s degree as a prerequisite. clinical psychologists make up one of the largest branches of psychology. Clinical psychologists work in a variety of environments: schools, hospitals, research settings, and training. Some work with patients with physical health concerns such as obesity or diabetes. Others work with patients with mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression, and other clinical psychologists work with students with learning disabilities. 

Social Worker:

Social workers are clinicians who serve to enhance their clients well-being and promote social change and the development of communities. Social workers often strive to help their clients reach their essential socio-emotional needs. Social workers may focus on a specific specialty within social work, such as civil rights, unemployment insurance, disability pay, worker’s compensation, reduced mental health stigma, Medicaid and Medicare, or child abuse and neglect prevention. Like clinical psychologists, they often work in medical settings, research environments, or schools, thus, providing a great amount of variety within the sub-field. Some poisons require only completing an undergraduate degree in social work, but most programs require a master’s degree in social work after completion of the undergraduate years. 

Genetic Counselor:

Genetic counselors work with patients to assess the risk of various genetic disorders and  congenital disabilities in their children. They often work in medical settings, such as clinics or hospitals, and cross genetics with counseling to prevent genetic disorders and comfort families. Outside of their clinical hours, many genetic counselors also engage in research to deepen the field’s understanding of genetics and inheritable disorders. A genetic counselor must first complete a bachelor’s degree followed by a master’s degree in genetic counseling that includes clinical hours. 

Neuropathologist: 

Neuropathologists focus on neural tissue and diagnose neurological diseases and disorders by examining the brain , spinal cord, and nerves. Neuropathologists contribute greatly to neurological research as they examine different structures and learn more about various diseases while individually diagnosing patients. Neuropathologists play a  significant  role in biopsies, diagnosis during procedures, and autopsies. Neuropathologists focus a lot of their research on causes of death, degenerative brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease  and other forms of dementia, and brain  tumors. To become a neuropathologist, one must complete their undergraduate degree, obtain an M.D. or D.O, complete residency training in pathology, and then further specialize in neuropathology through a fellowship program and training.

Neuropsychologist: 

A neuropsychologist is a clinician that focuses on the relationship between behavior/emotion and the biology/neuroanatomy of the brain. Neuropsychologists must obtain a doctorate in psychology and further post-doctoral training in neuropsychology.  Neuropsychologists often diagnose and treat memory disorders, mood disturbances, learning disabilities, nervous system dysfunction, and developmental disorders. Their biological and psychological background enables them to use both qualitative psychological testing  and medical imaging/tests to diagnose a set of symptoms. This multidisciplinary sub-field of psychology is excellent for those interested in the biological factors of neurological disorders. 

Neuroradiologist: 

A neuroradiologist is a radiologist that specializes in diagnosing neurological disorders through the use of medical imaging. Neuroradiologists must obtain a bachelor’s degree, attend medical school, complete residency training in radiology, and further training such as a fellowship in neuroradiology. Similar to neurosurgeons and neurologists, neuroradiologists are a type of physician. Neuroradiologists often analyze X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans of the brain and spinal cord. They also diagnose neurodegenerative diseases, tumors, and brain injuries. 

Neuropharmacologist: 

Neuropharmacology is the study of the effects of various drugs on the nervous system. Neuropharmacologists work to understand how different chemicals, such as medications and illicit drugs, affect the nervous system while synthesizing drugs that treat neurological disorders. Neuropharmacologists need to obtain a master’s or doctorate in neuropharmacology after completing  a bachelor’s degree. 

Psychophysicist: 

As the name alludes, psychophysics studies  the relationship between psychology and physics,specifically between physical stimuli and the psychological response/sensations it produces. Psychophysicists often work in research settings and  may play a role in a clinical setting. Their research accounts for much of what we know about neurology and how our brain responds to stimuli. To become a psychophysicist, you must complete a master’s or doctorate in psychology and obtain further training in psychophysics. Most psychophysicists also have an undergraduate background that includes Physics to some extent. 

Electroneurodiagnostic Technician: 

Electroneurodiagnostic Technicians are radio-techs that specialize in the nervous system. They use various imaging techniques and tests  including electroencephalographs (EEGs), nerve condition studies, electromyography (EMG), evoked potential (EP) Machinery, and inoperative monitoring (IOM). The tests they perform allow neurologists and neuroradiologists to diagnose disorders and diseases. Electroneurodiagnostic Technicians work in hospitals, research institutions, epilepsy monitoring units, and sleep disorder centers. To become an electroneurodiagnostic technician, one must complete a two-year associate’s degree and complete further training to pass the exam administered by the American Board of Electroencephalographic and Evoked Potential Technologists.

Neuroscience Nurse: 

A neuroscience nurse is an RN that treats and monitors patients with neurological disorders such as brain trauma, neurodegenerative diseases, and strokes. They may work in an in-patient or out-patient setting and tend to be in clinics or hospitals. 

Psychobiologist: 

Psychobiologists work to study the physiological and evolutionary mechanisms responsible for human behavior. They often work in research settings to understand the relationship between biological factors and psychology, similar to that of a neuropsychologist (just without the clinical background oftentimes.) Psychobiologists believe that biology plays a significant role in human behavior and perform research to show why and how. Their findings play a major role in the field of neuropsychology and psychobiology. To become a psychobiologist, you must first complete an undergraduate degree and obtain a master’s or doctorate in psychology or a Ph.D. in biology. The key difference between neuroscience/neuropsychology and psychobiology is that psychobiologists focus on biological factors  outside of just neurology. 

Neuroanatomist: 

Neuroanatomists focus on the anatomy and structure of the nervous system, often working on research and providing much of the information necessary for clinicians to diagnose. They make discoveries every day as they examine tissue. Their role is similar to that of a neuropathologist, but the career path does not require an M.D. or D.O. To become a neuroanatomist, you must obtain a master’s degree or doctorate.

Conclusion:

The wide variety of careers within neurology makes it an excellent choice for anyone interested in the field.  An interest in neurology can take you in so many directions from neurophysicists to neuropathologists, and everything in between! This post included many of the different types of careers within neurology/psychiatry, but not all of them: there are many more to choose from, and a quick google search will show you countless opportunities  in the field. Passion and an open mind will lead to a career in neurology that you love! Best of luck 🙂 

Sources: 

“Genetic Counselors : Occupational Outlook Handbook.” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 18 Apr. 2022, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/genetic-counselors.htm.

Learn.org, https://learn.org/articles/Neuropharmacologist_Frequently_Asked_Career_and_Salary_Questions.html#:~:text=Schools%20offer%20neuropharmacology%20degrees%20at,graduates%20are%20eligible%20as%20well.

“Neurology at Highland Hospital.” What Is a Neurologist? – Neurology – Highland Hospital – University of Rochester Medical Center, https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/highland/departments-centers/neurology/what-is-a-neurologist.aspx.

“Neuroscience Nurse.” Discover Nursing, https://nursing.jnj.com/specialty/neuroscience-nurse#:~:text=A%20Neuroscience%20Nurse%20helps%20patients,learn%20to%20manage%20their%20condition.

Pathologists, The Royal College of. “Become a Neuropathologist.” Homepage, https://www.rcpath.org/discover-pathology/careers-in-pathology/careers-in-medicine/become-a-neuropathologist.html.

Pietro, MaryAnn De. “Neuropsychologist: Definition and Patient Education.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 9 July 2017, https://www.healthline.com/health/neuropsychologist#typical-procedures.

“Pursuing a Career in Clinical or Counseling Psychology.” American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association, https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/clinical/education-training.

“What Is a Neuroradiologist?” Invision Sally Jobe, https://www.invisionsallyjobe.com/what-is-a-neuroradiologist/.

“What Is a Neurosurgeon?” What Is a Neurosurgeon – Neurosurgery – Highland Hospital – University of Rochester Medical Center, https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/highland/departments-centers/neurosurgery/what-is-a-neurosurgeon.aspx#:~:text=A%20neurosurgeon%20is%20a%20physician,degenerative%20diseases%20of%20the%20spine.

“What Is Psychiatry?” Psychiatry.org – What Is Psychiatry?, https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/what-is-psychiatry-menu.

“What Is Social Work?” Social Work License Map, 28 Mar. 2022, https://socialworklicensemap.com/become-a-social-worker/what-is-social-work/. 

Psychophysics: How We Smell, Hear, and See

By: Rachel Kimball

Introduction:

The five senses are something that we often learn about at a young age. We can navigate the world through our five senses, and even though they are prevalent in our daily lives, most people don’t know how they work. Perception is something that we couldn’t live without, and though our brain knows how it works, we ourselves, aren’t aware of its exact mechanics! 

How could we interact with the things around us without our sense of perception? How could we communicate without our ability to see, hear, or feel? How could we enjoy the foods we eat for dinner or smell delicious baked goods as they come out of the oven? 

We’ll dive into three of the five senses (sight, hearing, and smell) and how they work in this post. 

Overview of Sensory Processes:

To understand how the five senses work, we must first understand how the brain detects stimuli. The process of sensation goes from physical stimulation to a physiological response and then finally to a sensory experience. Each sensory system has distinct receptors and neural pathways. Sensory receptors are specialized structures that respond to physical stimuli by producing electrical changes that initiate neural impulses. For example, smell is detected through the olfactory nerve, while taste buds detect stimuli sent to the brain through facial and favus nerves. Touch and pain are detected through skin neurons and then sent to the spinal nerves.earing is detected by pressure-sensitive hair cells in the cochlea of the inner ear and then enter the brain through the auditory brain. Lastly, sight is processed through rods and cones in the retina and optic nerve in the eye.. 

More potent stimuli produce more significant receptor potentials, leading to faster action potentials in nerves that send information to the brain. When a stimulus is strong, the brain reacts faster to that stimulus. When there are changes in the stimuli around us, our brain’s job is to detect the change and alert us. When the stimuli first change around you, you detect it. For example, If you put a wristwatch on, you will feel it when you put it on, then later not feel the pressure. When you smell a strong scent, the smell seems to fade as you stay there. This is due to sensory adaptation: when we are exposed to the same stimuli for a length of time, we become used to it, and the sensory system adapts by becoming less sensitive than it was before, eventually leading to you not noticing it. 

Absolute and Difference Threshold:

Absolute threshold and difference threshold are two commonly used terms in Psychophysics. Absolute threshold describes the weakest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected at least 50 percent of the time. Although there are “average” absolute thresholds for each of the 5 senses, the exact levels vary for each person. The difference threshold describes the minimum change in a stimulus that can be detected between two different stimuli. Weber’s Law states that the just noticeable difference for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus. Therefore, it is harder to detect a change in strong stimuli than in weak stimuli. 

Smell:

The stimuli for smell are chemical molecules that enter the nose, so smell is considered a chemical sense. It is also referred to as the olfactory system, and the olfactory epithelium is where stimuli are detected. The stimuli for smell are chemical molecules that evaporate into the air and then bond to a receptor site, which changes shape. This causes an electrical change that leads to an action potential of the nerve, sending the message to the brain. The axons of the olfactory system eventually reach the olfactory bulb in the brain, where they form synapses (connections between neurons) in the glomeruli structure. The glomeruli then send the message to other brain parts, such as the hypothalamus, where we respond emotionally to the smell. Our ability to taste different flavors is dependent on our smell, so if you ever have to eat something yucky, pinch your nostrils! There are differences between people when it comes to olfactory sensitivity. Women, for example, are more sensitive to odors than men. In addition, genetic differences cause there to be differences in what odors we can identify. Some people can sense at least 75 odors while others cannot. Sensitivity to different odors is also dependent on our experiences and what smells we have been exposed to before. 

Hearing:

Unlike smell, sound is a physical stimulus rather than a chemical one. Sound travels in waves and reaches our ears through the vibration of air (or another medium.) Waves vary in frequency, and sound waves of greater frequency are higher energy and sound higher-pitched. Waves in lower frequency are lower-pitched and sound lower-pitched. The amplitude (height) of waves can also vary. Higher amplitude waves are louder than waves with lower amplitudes. Humans can hear amplitudes from 20 to 20,000 Hz. The anatomy of the ear enables us to make sense of auditory stimuli. It consists of the pinna (the visible portion of the ear) and the auditory canal, which begins at the ear’s opening and ends at the eardrum. Vibrations of sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate. The eardrum is also called the tympanic membrane. The middle ear is an air-filled cavity that has three bones called ossicles that are tiny! The three bones are called the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. When the eardrum vibrates, it causes the ossicles to vibrate as well. The middle ear’s primary purpose is to amplify the sound waves’ intensity to enable transduction. Transduction is the response of action-potentials in neurons that eventually leads to a response, such as the brain making sense of the stimuli, in which you become aware of it. Transduction occurs in the inner ear in the cochlea. In the inner duct, a tube in the inner ear, are hair cells on the basilar membrane. At the end of each hair  cell is a synapse that forms with auditory neurons, leading to the auditory nerve which runs to the brain. The hair cells then release a neurotransmitter, causing action potentials that send messages to the brain. 

Sight:

When I was in preschool, we were learning about the five senses, and one of the activities was to draw a house blindfolded. When I heard that the activity was going to make us “blind,” I refused to participate because I thought the activity would make me go permanently blind, which three-year-old me didn’t want! But how do we see? Of the five senses, vision is actually the one that we know the most about. 

When we see, light waves are transmitted across the cornea (the front part of the eye that acts as a barrier,) and then the waves pass through the pupil. The pupil’s job is to adjust how much light we are exposed to. 

For example, in a dark room, our pupils dilate and increase in size, and when we are staring at something bright, the pupils decrease in diameter. 

The light waves then pass through the lens. The lens serves similarly as the lens of a camera, as it focuses the image so we can eventually decode what we’re looking at. Once the light waves have passed through the front-most part of the eye, including the cornea, pupil, and lens, it hits the retina at the back-most side of the eye. The retina has two main types of cells: rods and cones. Cones are responsible for color vision and mainly concentrate in the fovea, which is in the center of the retina. Rods are found away from the retina’s center and are used primarily in dark light and for the less-fine details of sight. 

The information gathered through these steps is then transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve. The information then passes through the optic chiasm to enable both hemispheres in the brain to receive the information (even when the information is only from one side of the visual field or only uses one eye, such as if one eye is closed). The information then passes to the lateral geniculate nucleus, eventually ending in the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe. 

Conclusion: 

The science of how we see, smell and hear beautifully illustrates the interdisciplinary nature of neuroscience and how psychology, physics, and biology can all come together to describe a key component of Neuroscience: Psychophysics. 

With this information, we can better understand how the senses work and what is happening in our bodies as we see, smell, and hear. 

For more blog posts, check out our website!

Sources:

Gray, Peter. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2014.

“How Do We Hear?” National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/how-do-we-hear.

Let’s Talk Science, and February 03. “How We See.” Let’s Talk Science, 3 Feb. 2020, https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/how-we-see.

“Smell Disorders.” National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/smell-disorders#:~:text=Your%20sense%20of%20smell%E2%80%94like,connect%20directly%20to%20the%20brain. 

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